ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITATION ISSUE

Pollution

2008-12-25T08:31:00.000-08:00

The term "pollution," which carries with it a sense of an impurity, can be defined as a chemical or physical agent in an inappropriate location or concentration. The sources of pollution are varied. Natural sources include those that are not directly under human control, such as volcanoes, which spew forth sulfur oxides and particles; and those people could avoid, such as groundwater with naturally high levels of arsenic, which has caused poisoning in Bangladesh and Taiwan. All human activities have the possibility of polluting the environment by contaminating air, water, food, or soil, The earliest human pollution-control efforts dealt with avoidance of diseases caused by contamination of water and food by human excreta and with the control of smoke from fires used for cooking and heating. Sanitary engineering to manage human wastes remains a central public health need. Indoor air pollution due to the use of wood and fossil fuels in poorly ventilated residences also remains a major source of exposure to pollutants and a cause of respiratory disease in much of the world.

Types of Pollution

Pollution production can be considered under the heading of the four major human activity sectors: industry, energy, transportation, and agriculture. With the marked increase in human population and the industrialization of much of the globe has come a whole new set of pollutants. Scientific advances based upon understanding the chemical and physical forces underlying nature have led to new processes and new products that have transformed society and have had a major positive impact on human health. But these industrial activities also result in air and water emissions and contamination of the soil and of food as by-products of the processes involved in manufacture. The products themselves may be the means by which pollutants are distributed to the general population, such as lead poisoning through the use of lead in house paints. In the United States and other more wealthy countries, there recently has been a marked decline in industrial pollution emissions per unit produced. This has come about through regulatory control of emissions and, in part, through the recognition by industry that emissions represent a loss of raw materials or product that is economically advantageous to retain. As developed countries move into the information era, much of the production of textiles and durable goods has shifted to developing countries, not always with the same level of pollution control or protection of the work force. In developing countries, industrial production often occurs in smaller units, such as backyard smelters, which have significant local effects and are more difficult to control.

The energy sector continues to grow rapidly worldwide. There are basically three types of energy sources: the burning of fossil fuels and biomass; nuclear power; and energy derived from natural processes such as the sun, wind, and the flow of water. Energy from fossil fuels results from the conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide, with the least efficient and most polluting fossil fuels reflecting the extent of components other than carbon and hydrogen in the fuel source. The most plentiful fossil fuel is coal, which is also among the most polluting. Coal contains mineral ashes, nitrogen, and sulfur, which produce particulates, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides, when coal is burned. The use of high-sulfur coal for electric power generation and for home heating was a dominant cause of major air pollution episodes in London in 1952, Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948, and the Meuse Valley in Belgium in 1930. Much of the U.S. electric grid is powered by low-sulfur oil. Natural gas, which is a relatively pure hydrocarbon, is increasing in use and is particularly effective as a source of peak electric power during periods of high demand. The combustion of all fossil fuels produces nitrogen oxides, which are a major precursor of ozone and particulates. One form of nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, is itself a pollutant of concern. Carbon dioxide, the end product of efficient fossil fuel energy production, is a major contributor to global climate change. Reduction in carbon dioxide emissions requires more efficient production, transmission, and use of fossil fuel-derived energy. A switch to other energy sources will also help to reduce emissions.

Nuclear power has the advantage of not producing carbon dioxide or any of the sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, or particulates that are associated with fossil fuels. Its major disadvantages are the release of low-level radiation, the need for major water resources for cooling (with attendant ecological challenges), and, most importantly, the small but not absent risk of an uncontrolled nuclear reaction. The worst such example, and the only one in which there were substantial short-term health impacts from the civilian use of nuclear power, occurred in Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union in 1986. The extent of long-term effects due to the radiation that spread widely over Europe and globally is still being evaluated.

Wind and solar energy are expected to increase in use as the costs of fossil fuels increase and as new technology is developed. These are, in essence, free of pollution emissions. Hydroelectric power is a mainstay in some parts of the world, but dams have significant ecological implications and there is a growing movement against them. The most effective means of decreasing energy use is by lessening demand.

The transportation sector worldwide is increasingly dominated by automobile and truck emissions. In the United States there has been a marked decrease in pollutant emissions per mile driven that has been almost counterbalanced by an increase in the number of miles driven. Pollutants from gasoline-powered automobiles include the evaporation of volatile organic compounds and tailpipe emissions such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, benzene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Increased engine efficiency and catalytic converters have been effective in decreasing all but nitrogen oxide emissions. Diesel engines, which in the United States are primarily used on trucks, emit high levels of particulates and PAHs. Two-cycle engines on mopeds and other smaller vehicles are relatively inefficient, with much of the fuel evaporating. This is particularly a problem in developing countries. All internal combustion engines lead to the production of carbon dioxide. Future growth in the use of personal automobiles will be a major threat to global carbon dioxide production unless new engines and power sources are developed. Control of automotive emissions is as much a function of effective planning of transportation systems, including mass transit, as it is of technology. There have been relatively few studies of airport-related pollutant emissions, a segment of transportation that is increasing rapidly.

Agriculture is also a major source of pollution. World population growth has been accompanied by increased crop yields, which have been made possible by heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides. Nitrogenous fertilizers, an important part of the increased yield, result in nitrite contamination of drinking water, to which infants are particularly vulnerable. Nitrogenous fertilizers contribute to oxygen problems in water bodies and to greenhouse gas emissions. Phosphate fertilizers are of concern because of trace amounts of cadmium and other heavy metals that sometimes are part of natural phosphates. Cadmium can be taken up into certain crops, can cause renal toxicity, and is a potential carcinogen.

There are a wide range of pesticides and herbicides that are central to modern agriculture. Each of these is chosen because of its ability to have a biological effect on a plant or insect, and there is always a possibility that the biological effect will extend to humans or to other species. Major problems have been caused by pesticides that persist in the environment, such as heptachlor. This has led to bans on persistent organic pollutants and to testing protocols to avoid developing new ones.

Other Pollution Categories

Categorizing pollution in terms of the four sectors of industry, energy, transportation, and agriculture obscures the fact that some of the most important sources of pollution are intersectorial. As just one example, the Aswan High Dam provides Egypt with an important hydroelectric source and is effective in controlling flooding and providing irrigation for agriculture. But by retaining silt it decreases the nutrient load to the Nile Delta, which leads to a much heavier requirement for chemical fertilizers for agriculture as well as loss of sardine and salmon fisheries. The lack of the flushing effect of Nile floods has led to increased salinization of the land and has optimized breeding conditions for snails that carry schistosomiasis, an ancient scourge of this area. Similarly, the use of wood for local energy in developing countries is more than just a potential source of indoor and outdoor air pollution. Loss of forests can lead to soil erosion, flooding, and desertification, and have a negative impact on global climate.

Activities that lead to human development within and across each of these major sectors have the potential for producing a pollution impact that outweighs any benefit. There is, unfortunately, one common human activity that has an enormous environmental impact with no redeeming developmental consequences: war.

Pollutants can also be characterized by chemical or physical class; by use; by industrial source; by whether they are likely to be present in air, water, food, or other media; by the organs they attack or the effects they have; by the laws that control their use; and by whether they present a local, regional, or global problem. All of these categorization schemes are valuable, but none are without its faults. Chemicals have multiple properties and uses, and are able to move across environmental boundaries. Pollution episodes have often come about through an inappropriate focus on only one aspect of a chemical. For example, the 1990 U.S. Clean Air Act required the use of oxygenated fuels, which have chemical characteristics that were thought to be beneficial in decreasing automotive emissions in polluted areas. Yet another chemical characteristics of the most commonly used oxygenate compound, methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), caused it to be a major groundwater contaminant, a problem that was not foreseen because of an inappropriately narrow focus.

A more holistic approach to environmental pollution is particularly important during the current transition period. Pollution control techniques have been largely successful in dealing with end-of-pipe emissions. Through regulatory command and control of major pollution sources there has been a steady diminution of measured emissions to air and water in developed countries, and an improvement in air and water quality. Yet major problems remain, and in some instances they are getting worse. Two interrelated categories of particular concern are global climate change and pollutants from nonpoint sources.

Our planet maintains itself through a series of feedback loops involving interconnected biological, geological, and physical processes. The science that has enhanced our understanding of these processes has also demonstrated their vulnerability to the increasing dominance of human activities, including the effect of pollutants. One example is the diminution of the stratospheric ozone layer that protects humans against the harmful effects of short-range ultraviolet light. A major source of this diminution is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These compounds were seemingly ideal for refrigeration and a variety of other industrial purposes, in part because they are inert and cause little or no direct biological effects. But this lack of reactivity allows CFCs to persist and rise into the stratosphere where they enter into a reaction that decomposes ozone. An international treaty, the Montreal Protocol, has led to a decrease in this particular threat to the ozone layer. The feedback loops involved in global climate change, including the greenhouse effect which is now warming the earth, are far more complex and less well understood. Further, competitive economic and nationalistic interests have made it more difficult to deal with carbon dioxide and nitrogenous greenhouse gases.

Nonpoint source emissions refer to pollution for which there is no readily obvious target, or source. An example is damage to the Chesapeake Bay due to runoff of nitrogenous fertilizer compounds from farms along the Susquehanna River, including a heavy contribution from farms using natural fertilizing techniques. Agricultural practices and energy and transportation decisions contribute heavily to regional air and water pollution and to global warming.

Understanding Pollution Effects

A transition is also occurring in our understanding of the health effects of pollutants. It is now recognized that there are subtle health effects of environmental pollutants, such as endocrine disruption and neurobehavioral changes, for which newer toxicological paradigms are being developed. The unraveling of the human genome may provide a better understanding of the role of genetic susceptibility factors in response to pollution.

Understanding the effects of pollutants requires understanding how pollutants change following their release from a source, and how they can have effects many miles from their sources. For example, there are no significant direct emitters of air pollutant ozone. Rather, this major component of oxidant smog is formed in the air through the action of sunlight on a mixture of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons coming from many different sources, primarily automobiles. The precursors may have been emitted hundreds of miles upwind of where the ozone is eventually formed. For the northeastern United States, this means that statewide control strategies, which are the major enforcement focus of the U.S. Clean Air Act, are an inadequate approach to a regional issue. Similarly, acid rain and other forms of particulate air pollution can be derived from atmospheric reactions of gaseous sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides precursors occurring many hundreds of miles downwind. Agents released into water can also undergo significant changes. For example, methyl mercury, which is far more toxic than elemental mercury, is formed in water through the action of bacteria and makes its way into the food chain. The dumping of inorganic mercury from a single chloralkali plant in Minimata Bay, Japan, led to contamination of fish with methyl mercury and to over a hundred deaths and thousands of people being affected by what is known as Minimata disease. There is also a global air circulation of metals, such as mercury, and of persistent organic pollutants, such as PCBs, which tends to carry these agents toward the arctic where they often bioaccumulate.

Understanding the effects of pollutants on human health requires not only an understanding of the intrinsic hazard of the chemical or physical agent, but also the extent of human exposure. Exposure is often determined by local pathways within a community, such as whether drinking water comes from wells or from surface sources or whether individuals consume vegetables grown in their backyards or brought to market from far away. Individual activities can also alter pollutant intake; exercise, for example, increases respiratory uptake of air pollutants. Health effects due to pollutants are heavily dependent upon susceptibility factors, including age, gender, and genetic predisposition.

Managing Pollution

A variety of approaches have been developed to manage existing pollution. These include punishment of polluters through regulation, taxation, fines, toxic tort suits, and other disincentives; encouragement of nonpolluting approaches through tax and other incentives; and education of the public. The increased awareness of the potential harmful effects of pollution has had a major impact on industries and on individuals, particularly the young, who have led the way in activities such as recycling. Risk assessment has developed as a useful technique to estimate the risks of environmental pollutants and to establish priorities for environmental control and remediation efforts. These efforts to manage existing pollution are largely a form of secondary prevention in that the pollution already exists and the focus is on lessening the extent or the effects.

Primary prevention of pollution has occurred through approaches that, like any form of primary prevention, are both highly effective and difficult to quantify. The United States National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was the first major action arising out of the new environmental movement aimed at avoiding unwanted environmental consequences. It contained the requirement that significant newly proposed federal activities have an environmental impact statement prepared in advance, the goal being the incorporation of environmental concerns into all planning processes and the avoidance of those activities that would have an adverse impact. Advances in science have had a significant primary preventive effect, in part through providing assessment tools of use in preventing the development of new harmful products by the chemical industry. As examples, a basic understanding of the role of mutation in cancer and recognition of the structural aspects resulting in the environmental persistence of chemicals have led the chemical industry to detect and quickly drop out of its development programs those new chemicals that are mutagens or are likely to persist in the environment. The Precautionary Principle is basic to public health practice, but is also now being advocated as a form of primary prevention of environmental pollution.

Control of the more challenging insidious pollutant effects related to the health of the planetary biosphere and to nonpoint sources cannot depend solely upon standard command and control regulatory approaches. Central to avoiding significant long-term consequences to health and the environment is the development of innovative pollution prevention and control strategies, including emissions trading, taxation of consumption and international compacts; better targeting of controls through improved scientific understanding of the processes involved; and a more informed public.

Bibliography

United Nations Environment Programme (1999). Global Environment Outlook 2000—UNEP's Millennium Report on the Environment. London, UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd.

World Health Organization (1992). Report of the WHO Commission on Health and Environment. Geneva: Author.

— BERNARD D. GOLDSTEIN

Environmental management for vector control

2008-12-24T18:29:00.000-08:00

This set of training aids provides an introduction to the role of water resource management schemes in spreading a number of important communicable diseases of man. It limits itself to those diseases which are transmitted by invertebrate organisms whose lifecycle, either partly or wholy, is associated with the aquatic environment. These organisms can be flying insects, in which case they are called disease vectors, or certain species of aquatic snails, known as intermediate hosts. For practical purposes, in the accompanying text reference will be made to “vectors” on the understanding that this term includes the snail intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis. It presents a number of adverse conditions as they frequently occur in water resource development projects, followed by examples of environmental engineering measures which can be applied for their correction.

These training aids are first of all aimed at engineers, who are, or will be, responsible for the design and construction of irrigation and other hydraulic projects. However, they are also designed to serve as part of a package of educational material for the training of vector control specialists. They will hopefully contribute to a better mutual understanding and collaboration between these two groups

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Preface, Scope and target audience, How to use the training aids, Acknowledgements, [pdf 20kb]
Part A. Introduction [pdf 2.60Mb]
Part B. Water-associates vector-borne diseases, with the emphasis on the vector [pdf 2.10Mb]
Part C. Negative health effects of water resource projects and environmental management measures for their control [pdf 4.67Mb]

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Environmental Effects

2008-12-07T09:34:00.000-08:00

Fate and Transport and Ecological Effects of Mercury

Mercury in the air may settle into water bodies and affect water quality. This airborne mercury can fall to the ground in raindrops, in dust, or simply due to gravity (known as “air deposition”). After the mercury falls, it can end up in streams, lakes, or estuaries, where it can be transferred to methylmercury through microbial activity. Methylmercury accumulates in fish at levels that may harm the fish and the other animals that eat them. Mercury deposition in a given area depends on mercury emitted from local, regional, national, and international sources. The amount of methylmercury in fish in different waterbodies is a function of a number of factors, including the amount of mercury deposited from the atmosphere, local non-air releases of mercury, naturally occurring mercury in soils, the physical, biological, and chemical properties of different waterbodies and the age, size and types of food the fish eats. This explains why fish from lakes with similar local sources of methylmercury can have significantly different methylmercury concentrations.

You will need Adobe Reader to view some of the files on this page. See EPA's PDF page to learn more.

Birds and mammals that eat fish are more exposed to methylmercury than any other animals in water ecosystems. Similarly, predators that eat fish-eating animals are at risk. Methylmercury has been found in eagles, otters, and endangered Florida panthers. Analyses conducted for the Mercury Study Report to Congress suggest that some highly-exposed wildlife species are being harmed by methylmercury. Effects of methylmercury exposure on wildlife can include mortality (death), reduced fertility, slower growth and development and abnormal behavior that affects survival, depending on the level of exposure. In addition, research indicates that the endocrine system of fish, which plays an important role in fish development and reproduction, may be altered by the levels of methylmercury found in the environment.

The Mercury Deposition Network (MDN) monitors wet deposition of mercury at a number of sites across the country. For more information about the network, see http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/mdn/

The Mercury Study Report to Congress – EPA prepared this report to fulfill requirements of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. Published in 1997, it is an eight volume assessment of the magnitude of U.S. mercury emissions by source; the health and environmental impacts of those emissions; and the availability and cost of control technologies.

Volume III: Fate and Transport of Mercury in the Environment (376 pp., 4MB) - Volume III is the mercury fate and transport assessment component of the risk assessment for anthropogenic mercury emissions.

Volume IV: An Assessment of Exposure to Mercury in the United States (PDF) (293 pp., 1MB) - Volume IV is an exposure assessment component of the risk assessment for anthropogenic mercury emissions.

Volume VI, Ecological Assessment (PDF) (158 pp., 3M) - Volume VI is an ecological risk assessment for anthropogenic mercury emissions.

Volume VII: Characterization of Human Health and Wildlife Risks from Mercury Exposure in the United States (PDF) (152 pp., 727K) - Volume VII is an assessment of human health and ecological effects, identifies human subpopulations or wildlife species at elevated risk from mercury, assesses exposures from multiple environmental media, and describes the uncertainty and variability in these assessments.

Mercury Maps - This page describes a technical approach for estimating how reductions in mercury deposition will result in reduced fish tissue contamination. States, tribes, and EPA regions can use the techniques demonstrated in the Mercury Maps report to help them better understand and manage their mercury contamination problem.

STAR Grants about Mercury - EPA's National Center for Environmental Research (NCER) in the Office of Research and Development administers STAR (Science to Achieve Results) grants. Some of these grants involve studying the risks created by mercury in our environment so that we can better understand how to eliminate them. In 1999, NCER issued STAR grants to better understand the fate and transport of mercury through a watershed. In 2003, NCER issued STAR grants to better understand the fate and transport of mercury through the atmosphere.

STAR Mercury Transport and Fate Research Projects, 2000 (PDF) (8 pp., 463K) - EPA’s STAR (Science to Achieve Results) program funded a set of studies to develop a better understanding of mercury's terrestrial and aquatic fate and transformation processes that influence ecological and human exposure. This is a synopsis and overview of the research conducted through the grant program for 1999.

METAALICUS - Mercury Experiment To Assess Atmospheric Loading In Canada and the United States (METAALICUS) is an experimental project in which leading mercury researchers from the United States and Canada working to address the critical uncertainties linking atmospheric mercury deposition to methylmercury concentrations in fish. In October 2007, these researchers published an article in the Proceedings of the [United States] National Academy of Sciences, "Whole-ecosystem study shows rapid fish-mercury response to changes in mercury deposition," that concluded that an increase in mercury loading at rates relevant to atmospheric deposition resulted in an increase in methylmercury production and concentrations in aquatic biota in only three years. Read the abstract.

Methylmercury Availability in New England Estuaries as Indicated by the Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow, 2004-2005 (PDF) (27 pp., 1.86 MB) This study, prepared by the BioDiversity Research Institute in 2006, assessed methylmercury availability to sparrows collected in Maine, Rhode Island and Connecticut.

2008 South Florida Environmental Report - A report about restoration, management, and protection activities associated with the Evergaldes, Lake Okeechobee, the Kissimmee Basin, and South Florida’s coastal ecosystems. The report includes information on recent mercury research.

United Nations Environment Programme: Global Mercury Assessment - At the February 2003 meeting of the UNEP Governing Council, the environmental ministers agreed to create a UNEP Mercury Programme. The long-term objective of the Programme is to facilitate national, regional and global actions to minimize uses and releases of mercury, thereby significantly reducing the adverse impacts on humans and the environment. The immediate objective of the Programme is to encourage all countries to adopt goals and take actions, as appropriate, to identify at-risk populations, minimize exposures through outreach efforts, and reduce human-generated mercury releases.

WATER POLLUTION AND SOCIETY

2008-12-07T09:16:00.000-08:00

By David Krantz and Brad Kifferstein

INTRODUCTION

Comprising over 70% of the Earth�s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on Earth would be non-existent: it is essential for everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Although we as humans recognize this fact, we disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where organisms
are dying at a very alarming rate. In addition to innocent organisms dying off, our drinking water has become greatly affected as is our ability to use water for recreational purposes. In order to combat water pollution, we must understand the problems and become part of the solution.

POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES

According to the American College Dictionary, pollution is defined as: �to make foul or unclean; dirty.� Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large amounts of materials to the water. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered polluted. Two types of water pollutants exist; point source and nonpoint source. Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water. The Exxon Valdez oil spill best illustrates a point source water pollution. A nonpoint source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental changes. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain, in the form of run-off which in turn effects aquatic life. The technology exists for point sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, although political factors may complicate matters. Nonpoint sources are much more difficult to control. Pollution arising from nonpoint sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes.

CAUSES OF POLLUTION

Many causes of pollution including sewage and fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates. In excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs our waterways, use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters.
This, in turn, proves very harmful to aquatic organisms as it affects the respiration ability or fish and other invertebrates that reside in water.
Pollution is also caused when silt and other suspended solids, such as soil, washoff plowed fields, construction and logging sites, urban areas, and eroded river banks when it rains. Under natural conditions, lakes, rivers, and other water bodies undergo Eutrophication, an aging process that slowly fills in the water body with sediment and organic matter. When these sediments enter various bodies of water, fish respirationbecomes impaired, plant productivity and water depth become reduced, and aquatic organisms and their environments become suffocated. Pollution in the form of organic material enters waterways in many different forms as sewage, as leaves and grass clippings, or as runoff from livestock feedlots and pastures. When natural bacteria and protozoan in the water break down this organic material, they begin to use up the oxygen dissolved in the water. Many types of fish and bottom-dwelling animals cannot survive when levels of dissolved oxygen drop below two to five parts per million. When this occurs, it kills aquatic organisms in large numbers which leads to disruptions in the food chain.

Polluted River in the United Kingdom

The pollution of rivers and streams with chemical contaminants has become one of the most crutial environmental problems within the 20th century. Waterborne chemical pollution entering rivers and streams cause tramendous amounts of destruction.

Pathogens are another type of pollution that prove very harmful. They can cause many illnesses that range from typhoid and dysentery to minor respiratory and skin diseases. Pathogens include such organisms as bacteria, viruses, and protozoan. These pollutants enter waterways through untreated sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, runoff from farms, and particularly boats that dump sewage. Though microscopic, these pollutants have a tremendous effect evidenced by their ability to cause sickness.

ADDITIONAL FORMS OF WATER POLLUTION

Three last forms of water pollution exist in the forms of petroleum, radioactive substances, and heat. Petroleum often pollutes waterbodies in the form of oil, resulting from oil spills. The previously mentioned Exxon Valdez is an example of this type of water pollution. These large-scale accidental discharges of petroleum are an important cause of pollution along shore lines. Besides the supertankers, off-shore drilling operations contribute a large share of pollution. One estimate is that one ton of oil is spilled for every million tons of oil transported. This is equal to about 0.0001 percent. Radioactive substances are produced in the form of waste from nuclear power plants, and from the industrial, medical, and scientific use of radioactive materials. Specific forms of waste are uranium and thorium mining and refining. The last form of water pollution is heat. Heat is a pollutant because increased temperatures result in the deaths of many aquatic organisms. These decreases in temperatures are caused when a discharge of cooling water by factories and power plants occurs.

Demonstrators Protest Drilling

Oil pollution is a growing problem, particularly devestating to coastal wildlife. Small quantities of oil spread rapidly across long distances to form deadly oil slicks. In this picture, demonstrators with "oil-covered" plastic animals protest a potential drilling project in Key Largo, Florida. Whether or not accidental spills occur during the project, its impact on the delicate marine ecosystem of the coral reefs could be devastating.

Oil Spill Clean-up

Workers use special nets to clean up a California beach after an oil tanker spill. Tanker spills are an increasing environmental problem because once oil has spilled, it is virtually impossible to completely remove or contain it. Even small amounts spread rapidly across large areas of water. Because oil and water do not mix, the oil floats on the water and then washes up on broad expanses of shoreline. Attempts to chemically treat or sink the oil may further disrupt marine and beach ecosystems.

CLASSIFYING WATER POLLUTION The major sources of water pollution can be classified as municipal, industrial, and agricultural. Municipal water pollution consists of waste water from homes and commercial establishments. For many years, the main goal of treating municipal wastewater was simply to reduce its content of suspended solids, oxygen-demanding materials, dissolved inorganic compounds, and harmful bacteria. In recent years, however, more stress has been placed on improving means of disposal of the solid residues from the municipal treatment processes.

The basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three stages: primary treatment, including grit removal, screening, grinding, and sedimentation; secondary treatment, which entails oxidation of dissolved organic matter by means of using biologically active sludge, which is then filtered off; and tertiary treatment, in which advanced biological methods of nitrogen removal and chemical and physical methods such as granular filtration and activated carbon absorption are employed. The handling and disposal of solid residues can account for 25 to 50 percent of the capital and operational costs of a treatment plant. The characteristics of industrial waste waters can differ considerably both within and among industries.

The impact of industrial discharges depends not only on thei collective characteristics, such as biochemical oxygen demand and the amount of suspended solids, but also on their content of specific inorganic and organic substances. Three options are available in controlling industrial wastewater. Control can take place at the point of generation in the plant; wastewater can be pretreated for discharge to municipal treatment sources; or wastewater can be treated completely at the plant and either reused or discharged directly into receiving waters.

Wastewater Treatment

Raw sewage includes waste from sinks, toilets, and industrial processes. Treatment of the sewage is required before it can be safely buried, used, or released back into local water systems. In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers, and chemical processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. The three general phases of treatment are primary, secondary, and tertiary. During primary treatment, a large percentage of the suspended solids and inorganic material is removed from the sewage. The focus of secondary treatment is reducing organic material by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is necessary when the water will be reused; 99 percent of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure the water is as free from impurity as possible.

Agriculture, including commercial livestock and poultry farming, is the source of many organic and inorganic pollutants in surface waters and groundwater. These contaminants include both sediment from erosion cropland and compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen that partly originate in animal wastes and commercial fertilizers. Animal wastes are high in oxygen demanding material, nitrogen and phosphorus, and they often harbor pathogenic organisms. Wastes from commercial feeders are contained and disposed of on land; their main threat to natural waters, therefore, is from runoff and leaching. Control may involve settling basins for liquids, limited biological treatment in aerobic or anaerobic lagoons, and a variety of other methods.

GROUND WATER

Ninety-five percent of all fresh water on earth is ground water. Ground water is found in natural rock formations. These formations, called aquifers, are a vital natural resource with many uses. Nationally, 53% of the population relies on ground water as a source of drinking water. In rural areas this figure is even higher. Eighty one percent of community water is dependent on ground water. Although the 1992 Section 305(b) State Water Quality Reports indicate that, overall, the Nation�s ground water quality is good to excellent, many local areas have experienced significant ground water contamination. Some examples are leaking underground storage tanks and municipal landfills.

LEGISLATION

Several forms of legislation have been passed in recent decades to try to control water pollution. In 1970, the Clean Water Act provided 50 billion dollars to cities and states to build wastewater facilities. This has helped control surface water pollution from industrial and municipal sources throughout the United States. When congress passed the Clean Water Act in 1972, states were given primary authority to set their own standards for their water. In addition to these standards, the act required that all state beneficial uses and their criteria must comply with the �fishable and swimmable� goals of the act. This essentially means that state beneficial uses must be able to support aquatic life and recreational use. Because it is impossible to test water for every type of disease-causing organism, states usually look to identify indicator bacteria. One for a example is a bacteria known as fecal coliforms. (Figure 1 shows the quality of water for each every state in the United States, click on the US link). These indicator bacteria suggest that a certain selection of water may be contaminated with untreated sewage and that other, more dangerous, organisms are present. These legislations are an important part in the fight against water pollution. They are useful in preventing Envioronmental catastrophes. The graph shows reported pollution incidents since 1989-1994. If stronger legislations existed, perhaps these events would never have occurred.

GLOBAL WATER POLLUTION

Estimates suggest that nearly 1.5 billion people lack safe drinking water and that at least 5 million deaths per year can be attributed to waterborne diseases. With over 70 percent of the planet covered by oceans, people have long acted as if these very bodies of water could serve as a limitless dumping ground for wastes. Raw sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to overwhelm the diluting capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted. Beaches around the world are closed regularly, often because of high amounts of bacteria from sewage disposal, and marine wildlife is beginning to suffer.

Perhaps the biggest reason for developing a worldwide effort to monitor and restrict global pollution is the fact that most forms of pollution do not respect national boundaries. The first major international conference on environmental issues was held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972 and was sponsored by the United Nations (UN). This meeting, at which the United States took a leading role, was controversial because many developing countries were fearful that a focus on environmental protection was a means for the developed world to keep the undeveloped world in an economically subservient position. The most important outcome of the conference was the creation of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP).

UNEP was designed to be �the environmental conscience of the United Nations,� and, in an attempt to allay fears of the developing world, it became the first UN agency to be headquartered in a developing country, with offices in Nairobi, Kenya. In addition to attempting to achieve scientific consensus about major environmental issues, a major focus for UNEP has been the study of ways to encourage sustainable development increasing standards of living without destroying the environment. At the time of UNEP's creation in 1972, only 11 countries had environmental agencies. Ten years later that number had grown to 106, of which 70 were in developing countries.

WATER QUALITY

Water quality is closely linked to water use and to the state of economic development. In industrialized countries, bacterial contamination of surface water caused serious health problems in major cities throughout the mid 1800�s. By the turn of the century, cities in Europe and North America began building sewer networks to route domestic wastes downstream of water intakes. Development of these sewage networks and waste treatment facilities in urban areas has expanded tremendously in the past two decades. However, the rapid growth of the urban population (especially in Latin America and Asia) has outpaced the ability of governments to expand sewage and water infrastructure. While waterborne diseases have been eliminated in the developed world, outbreaks of cholera and other similar diseases still occur with alarming frequency in the developing countries. Since World War II and the birth of the �chemical age�, water quality has been heavily impacted worldwide by industrial and agricultural chemicals. Eutrophication of surface waters from human and agricultural wastes and nitrification of groundwater from agricultural practices has greatly affected large parts of the world. Acidification of surface waters by air pollution is a recent phenomenon and threatens aquatic life in many area of the world. In developed countries, these general types of pollution have occurred sequentially with the result that most developed countries have successfully dealt with major surface water pollution. In contrast, however, newly industrialized countries such as China, India, Thailand, Brazil, and Mexico are now facing all these issues simultaneously.

CONCLUSION

Clearly, the problems associated with water pollution have the capabilities to disrupt life on our planet to a great extent. Congress has passed laws to try to combat water pollution thus acknowledging the fact that water pollution is, indeed, a seriousissue. But the government alone cannot solve the entire problem. It is ultimately up to us, to be informed, responsible and involved when it comes to the problems we face with our water. We must become familiar with our local water resources and learn about ways for disposing harmful household wastes so they don�t end up in sewage treatment plants that can�t handle them or landfills not designed to receive hazardous materials. In our yards, we must determine whether additional nutrients are needed before fertilizers are applied, and look for alternatives where fertilizers might run off into surface waters. We have to preserve existing trees and plant new trees and shrubs to help prevent soil erosion and promote infiltration of water into the soil. Around our houses, we must keep litter, pet waste, leaves, and grass clippings out of gutters and storm drains.

These are just a few of the many ways in which we, as humans, have the ability to combat water pollution. As we head into the 21st century, awareness and education will most assuredly continue to be the two most important ways to prevent water pollution. If these measures are not taken and water pollution continues, life on earth will suffer severely.

Global environmental collapse is not inevitable. But the developed world must work with the developing world to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the world's environmental problems. Politicians must think of sustainable development rather than economic expansion. Conservation strategies have to become more widely accepted, and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically diminished without sacrificing comfort. In short, with the technology that currently exists, the years of global environmental mistreatment can begin to be reversed.

Public Transport

2008-12-07T09:05:00.000-08:00

Public transport offers alternative modes of transport to the private motor car. Public transport, including trains, trams and buses, can relieve traffic congestion and reduce air pollution from road transport. The use of public transport must be encouraged if a sustainable transport policy is to be developed.

Railways are efficient forms of transport that use existing tracks, and therefore use less land than roads. One commuter train may hold hundreds of passengers which may otherwise have travelled to work by car. Although trains can reduce road congestion, it is important to remember that they still contribute to air pollution both directly and indirectly. Diesel engines produce a large amount of particulates. Electric trains do not release air pollutants directly, but their electricity produced "upstream" by power stations can contribute to acid rain and global warming if they use fossil fuels.

Buses are generally recognised as an environmentally friendly form of transport, particularly in relation to the number of car journeys needed to carry the same number of passengers. A double-decker bus carries the same number of people as 20 fully occupied cars. Currently, however, buses and coaches account for only 1% of the total vehicle mileage on Britain's roads. A bus uses less fuel per person carried, and hence less fuel than the number of cars needed to replace it. However, buses do contribute to air quality problems, particularly in cities. Buses in the UK are mainly powered by diesel engines, with a handful of alternative fuels under trial. Improvements in the emission performance of buses are likely to be needed in the future.

There has been a resurgence in the use of transport such as trams and light railway, which have a lower environmental impact than buses. Trams use smaller vehicles and tighter rail tracks than conventional trains, which enables them to be constructed within existing built-up areas. They also run at a lower cost than trains, and they can easily be expanded to accommodate increases in passengers.

An example of a successful light rail transport scheme is the Metrolink, developed in Manchester in 1991. Sections of the Metrolink run parallel to other vehicles in the existing road network. Since its successful instalment, additional extensions have been developed or planned to surrounding suburbs.

Public transport should form part of a wider integrated sustainable transport strategy. However, the cost and convenience of use of public transport needs to be lowered to encourage people to use this as an alternative to personal vehicles.

Unfortunately a dramatic shift to non-car-based travel, in the UK at least, will only occur when the quality of public transport service is improved. Currently, barriers to uptake include cost, travel time and lack of convenient (door-to-door) route availability in comparison to car travel. These barriers will need addressing now and in the future if public transport is to play a serious role in making Britain's transport system more sustainable.

2008-12-07T08:59:00.001-08:00

When nature produces waste, it recycles it all!

Today we produce a lot of rubbish, and most of it ends up under ground. How much of all this waste could be recycled?

Step 1

Look at the content of your rubbish bin, and see what you have thrown away (do it outside on newspaper).

Weigh the contents and separate them, e.g. glass, food waste, plastics, textiles, paper and metals.

You should have your parents' permission (or help) before doing this.
Wear a pair of washing-up gloves and old clothes.
Be very careful with broken glass and sharp edges of cans as you could cut yourself and get infected!
Never taste or inhale unknown substances!

Step 2

How much of this rubbish do you think can be recycled or put back into nature's natural cycle? You can contact your local environmental or conservation group for ideas on how you can recycle some of your rubbish. Find out where your nearest recycle centre is!

Here are some examples to get you started!

Paper

Many charities and organisations collect old newspaper and magazines to be recycled. You can try and contact those in your area.
There are also recycle bins at supermarkets.

Glass

There should also be bottle-banks for bottle and jars at your nearest supermarket, or at your nearest recycle centre.
You can ask your local authority about this.
There are different colours of glass, make sure you separate them, and put them in the right recycle bin!

Aluminium cans

Aluminium cans can be washed and crushed and taken to a recycle centre. Again, there should be one at your nearest supermarket, if not, contact your local authority or look in the yellow pages.
At concerts, fairs, and other events, you could be paid for every can you collect!
Only aluminium can be recycled not other ones! To find out if a can is made of aluminium, use a magnet! Aluminium cans are NOT magnetic, others are!

Organic Waste

This is anything that will rot (vegetables, fruits…). You can use it as compost for your vegetable garden, and if you do not have one, you can start one!

Plastics

Plastic bottles and containers are usually all recyclable, you should also be able to find a recycle bin for plastics at your recycle centre.
You can probably crush some of them (some plastic bottles for water have now been designed for this), and then it will take less space in the bin.
You could find out if your council collects them from your house.

Step 3

Hopefully, you should have nothing left. But if you do, it is probably rubbish like chemicals, plastic bags and non-aluminium cans, these cannot be recycled at the moment.
Weigh this waste - the less there is the better! See if you can reduce it in the future, for example, you could start buying products with less packaging or by always taking with you the same bags when you go to the shops.

Source : http://www.clean-air-kids.org.uk/recycling1.html

2008-12-07T08:53:00.000-08:00

Rain is very important for life. All living things need water to live, even people.

Rain brings us the water we need. But in many places in the world even where you live, rain has become a menace.

Because of pollution in the air, acid gases from factories, cars and homes, the rain is becoming dangerous for the life of every living creature.

This rain is known as 'acid rain'.

WHAT IS ACID RAIN?

Acid gases are produced when fossil fuels like coal and oil are burned in power stations, factories and in our own homes. Most of these acid gases are blown into the sky, and when they mix with the clouds it can cause rain - or snow, sleet, fog, mist or hail - to become more acidic.

The opposites of acid are alkalis; for example, toothpaste and baking powder are both alkalis. Strong alkalis can also be dangerous, such as ammonia and bleach.

Lemon juice, vinegar and cola are all acidic. Rain is naturally acidic, but acid gases make it even more acidic, sometimes as acid as lemon!

Nature can also produce acid gases, such as volcanoes. When they erupt, the smoke that comes out of the crater is also full of acid gases.

HOW DO WE MEASURE ACIDITY?

There is a special scale called the pH scale that measures the strength of acids and alkalis. A low pH number means something is acid. A high number means something is alkali. And something in the middle is called neutral.
Acidity can be tested using litmus paper.
Usually rain is a little acidic, and has pH of about 5.5, if the pH of rainfall is less than 5.5, then the rain is probably polluted by acid gases.
Acids turn litmus paper red, and alkalis turn it blue. With a special paper called universal indicator, you can test levels of acidity.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN GASES THAT CAUSE ACID RAIN?

When we burn fuels, chemicals called 'sulphur' and 'nitrogen' are released into the air. Once in the air, they mix with water in the air - rain, snow, etc - and are transformed into different chemicals called 'sulphur dioxide' and 'nitrogen oxides', which can be very dangerous for plants, animals and people. Most of the 'sulphur' comes from power stations, which make electricity, and also from volcanoes. Most of the 'nitrogen oxides' come from car and truck exhausts.

We call 'air pollution' the bad gases that we produce and release in the air. 'Sulphur dioxide' and 'nitrogen oxides' are the most important causes of acid rain.

A PROBLEM ALL OVER THE WORLD

Air pollution can be carried over long distances. When acid gases are released, they go high up in the sky, and then they are pushed by strong winds towards other countries.

The acid rain in Sweden is caused by air pollution in Britain and other countries of Europe. The pollution produced in Britain ends up mostly in Scandinavia - countries in northern Europe including Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

In the USA, the winds blow the air pollution to certain areas in Canada.

HOW BAD IS ACID RAIN?

When rain is acidic, it affects what it falls on: trees, lakes, buildings and farmland. Sometimes rain is not very acidic and does not cause a lot of problems, but when it is acidic, it can be very harmful to the environment.

TREES AND PLANTS

Acid rain can have terrible effects on a forest. The acid takes away important minerals from the leaves and the soil.

Minerals are like vitamins for trees and plants. Without them, trees and plants cannot grow properly. They lose their leaves and become very weak. They are no longer strong enough to fight against illnesses and frost. They become very ill and can even die.

Some soils are alkaline, when acid rain falls on them the acid becomes neutral. Plants and trees living on these soils are not in any big danger..

LAKES AND WATER LIFE

Acid rain has a terrible effect on water life. Even if the acid rain does not fall straight into the lake, for example, it may enter from rivers and streams. Some of the life in the lake such as fish and plants may end up dying, because they cannot survive in acidic lakes.

Thousands of lakes in Scandinavia have no more life in them. They have received so much acid rain for so many years, because of the winds pushing the acid gases, that nothing can survive.

You can recognise a lake dead from acid rain by its clean and crystal clear water. But they look clean because there is very little living in them anymore. Tiny plants and animals are mostly unable to survive..

OUR HEALTH

Particulates - very small particles of debris found in some of the air pollution - are one of the main causes of health problems. In towns and cities, these are released mainly by diesel engines from cars and trucks.

When we breathe in air pollution, these very fine particulates can easily enter our body, where they can cause breathing problems, and over time even cause cancer.

Water we drink from taps can be contaminated by acid rain, which can damage the brain..

BUILDINGS

Acid rain can also ruin buildings because the acid eats into metal and stone. It also damages stained glass and plastics. Some types of building materials are softer than others, and it is the softer ones which are most affected by acid rain. Sandstone and limestone are examples of stone which are fairly soft and are damaged easily. Granite is an example of a harder stone that can resist the effects of acid rain.

In many places in the world, ancient and famous buildings and monuments are affected by acid rain. For example, the Statue of Liberty in New York, USA, has had to be restored because of acid rain damage. Buildings are naturally eroded by rain, wind, frost and the sun, but when acidic gases are present, it speeds up the erosion.

Source : http://www.clean-air-kids.org.uk/acidrain.html

2008-12-07T08:49:00.001-08:00

The Earth is wrapped in a blanket of air called the 'atmosphere', which is made up of several layers of gases. The sun is much hotter than the Earth and it gives off rays of heat (radiation) that travel through the atmosphere and reach the Earth. The rays of the sun warm the Earth, and heat from the Earth then travels back into the atmosphere. The gases in the atmosphere stop some of the heat from escaping into space. These gases are called greenhouse gases and the natural process between the sun, the atmosphere and the Earth is called the 'Greenhouse Effect', because it works the same way as a greenhouse. The windows of a greenhouse play the same role as the gases in the atmosphere, keeping some of the heat inside the greenhouse.

THE NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The atmosphere has a number of gases, often in tiny amounts, which trap the heat given out by the Earth.

To make sure that the Earth's temperature remains constant, the balance of these gases in the atmosphere must not be upset.

The GREENHOUSE GASES are very important and are mainly:

water vapour
occurs naturally in the atmosphere.

carbon dioxide
produced naturally when people and animals breathe. Plants and trees absorb carbon dioxide to live. Volcanoes also produce this gas. Carbon dioxide is not the same as carbon monoxide (See Air Quality)

methane
comes from cattle as they digest their food. The gas also comes from fields where rice is grown in paddy fields.

nitrous oxide
when plants die and rot, nitrous oxide is produced.

ozone
occurs naturally in the atmosphere.

THE ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Some of the activities of man also produce greenhouse gases. These gases keep increasing in the atmosphere. The balance of the greenhouse gases changes and this has effects on the whole of the planet.

Burning fossil fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide.

A group of greenhouse gases called the chlorofluorocarbons, - which are usually called CFCs, because the other word is much too long! - have been used in aerosols, such as hairspray cans, fridges and in making foam plastics. They are found in small amounts in the atmosphere. They are dangerous greenhouse gases because small amounts can trap large amounts of heat.

Because there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more heat is trapped which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as GLOBAL WARMING.

A lot of scientists agree that man's activities are making the natural greenhouse effect stronger. If we carry on polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, it will have very dangerous effects on the Earth.

THE EFFECTS

With more heat trapped on Earth, the planet will become warmer, which means the weather all over Earth will change. For example, summers will get hotter, and winters too. This may seem a good idea, but the conditions we are living in are perfect for life, and a large rise in temperature could be terrible for us and for any other living thing on Earth.

At the moment, it is difficult for scientists to say how big the changes will be and where the worse effects will occur.

The Weather

In Britain, winter and summer temperatures will increase and the weather will be warmer. In winter it may also rain more but in summer it may become drier.

In other parts of the world, the effects will be different, some places will become drier and others will be wetter. Although most areas will be warmer, some areas will become cooler. There may be many storms, floods and drought, but we do not know which areas of the world will be affected.

All over the world, these weather changes will affect the kind of crop that can be grown. Plants, animals and even people may find it difficult to survive in different conditions.

Sea Levels

Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand. Ice melting in the Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea.

All over the world, sea levels may rise, perhaps by as much as 20 to 40 cm, by the beginning of the next century.

Higher sea levels will threaten the low-lying coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh. Throughout the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger from flooding. Many people will have to leave their homes and large areas of farmland will be ruined because of floods. In Britain, East Anglia and the Thames estuary will be at risk from the rising sea.

Farming

The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in different parts of the world. Some crops, such as wheat and rice grow better in higher temperatures, but other plants, such as maize and sugarcane do not. Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many plants grow.

The effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, south-east Asia and China will be affected the most and many people could suffer from hunger.

Water

Everywhere in the world, there is a big demand for water and in many regions, such as the Sahara in Africa, there is not enough water for the people. Changes in the weather will bring more rain in some countries, but others will have less rain.

In Britain, the Southeast will be at risk from drought.

IN DANGER!

Plants & Animals

It has taken million of years for life to become used to the conditions on Earth. As weather and temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals will be affected all over the world.

For example, polar bears and seals, will have to find new land for hunting and living, if the ice in the Arctic melts.

Many animals and plants may not be able to cope with these changes and could die. This could cause the loss of some animal and plant species in certain areas of the world or everywhere on Earth.

People

The changes in climate will affect everyone, but some populations will be at greater risk. For example, countries whose coastal regions have a large population, such as Egypt and China, may see whole populations move inland to avoid flood risk areas. The effect on people will depend on how well we can adapt to the changes and how much we can do to reduce climate change in the world.

Go to the next sheet on the Ozone Hole.......

Source : http://www.clean-air-kids.org.uk/globalwarming.html

Agenda 21

2008-12-07T08:43:00.000-08:00

Agenda 21, established at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, or "Earth Summit", in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is the blueprint for sustainability in the 21^st century. Agenda 21 is a commitment to sustainable development, which was agreed by many of the world's governments. Nations that have pledged to take part in Agenda 21 are monitored by the International Commission on Sustainable Development, and are encouraged to promote Agenda 21 at the local and regional levels within their own countries. Agenda 21 addresses the development of societies and economies by focusing on the conservation and preservation of our environments and natural resources.

The Conventions, Principles and Declarations of the Earth Summit, provide guidelines to deal with the problems of poverty, hunger, resource consumption and the deterioration of ecosystems. Agenda 21 provides a format for this to happen, detailing an action plan for sustainable development and establishing targets for actions that combine economic development and environmental protection. Agenda 21:

Is the blueprint for sustainability in the 21^st century.
Provides options for combating the deterioration of land, air and water, whilst conserving habitats and their diversity.
Deals with poverty, over consumption, health and education.
Promotes roles for all. Everyone – governments, business, trade unions, scientists, teachers, indigenous people and youth – have roles to play in achieving sustainable development and should be involved in the decision making processes.
Encourages the reduction of environmentally and socially detrimental processes, but within a framework which allows economic success.

Presently a nation’s wealth is gauged by its financial standing, and the more money the better. Agenda 21 promotes the attitude that a nation’s wealth should also account for the full value of its natural resources. Agenda 21 also encourages nations to consider the costs of environmental degradation. In addition, to reduce the risk of damage, environmental assessments should be carried out and where degradation does occur, those responsible should bear the costs.

Agenda 21 highlights the need to eradicate poverty. One of the major problems facing poorer nations is their lack of resources and ability to live sustainably. Developed nations have taken on the responsibilities of assisting poorer nations to reduce their environmental impacts and achieve sustainable development.

Agenda 21 asks governments to integrate sustainable development into their national strategies and highlights the importance of involving non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the public in the process. For sustainable development to work, issues must be tackled on a local, national and international level and nations must work ‘towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system.’

Source : http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk/Action/Agenda_21.php

Environment > Air Pollution

2008-12-07T08:35:00.000-08:00

One of Earth's most important natural resources is its atmosphere. The atmosphere contains air without which plants and animals could not survive. It contains greenhouse gases which keep the planet naturally warmer than it would be otherwise, maintaining an average global temperature above freezing that allows water to exist in its liquid state, a necessary condition for most life. If mankind is to protect and preserve this unique natural resource for future generations as well as other ecosystems, it must continue to address the problem of air pollution which affects the atmosphere from the local to the global scale.

Air Pollution and concern about air quality are not new. Complaints were recorded in the 13^th century when coal was first used in London. Since the middle of the 19^th century, the atmosphere of the major British cities was regularly polluted by coal smoke in winter, giving rise to an infamous mixture of fog and smoke known as smog.

In the 1970s the transboundary effects of industrial air pollution become known as acid rain. Acid rain is a widespread term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation such as rain and snow. Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acid, causing precipitation to become more acidic when converted to sulphuric and nitric acids, hence the term acid rain. Acid deposition, acid rain and acid precipitation all relate to the chemistry of air pollution and moisture in the atmosphere. Scientists generally use the term acid deposition but all three terms relate to the same issue.

Acid rain is particularly harmful to vegetation as the acid in the rain changes the pH of the soil and leeches away important minerals. The amount of acid rain that an ecosystem can tolerate is known as its critical load. After the sulphuric and nitric acids have formed in the atmosphere, they can travel long distances with the wind before being deposited. In fact, much of the acid rain found in Scandinavia originated from the UK. In response to these problems, a number of agreements, including the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva, 1979), have set out to reduce acid rain.

Although acid rain remains an international concern, poor air quality in cities is now considered to be a more pressing environmental problem. Today poor air quality can be mainly attributed to the production and consumption of energy, industrial processes and road transport. The main pollutants associated with poor air quality are sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulates (PM₁₀), and volatile organic compound (VOCs). These pollutants can lead to respiratory problems, particularly amongst the young and elderly.

Transport in particular is becoming an increasing source of air pollution. The transport related problems experienced now are likely to worsen according to the projected increase in traffic. Individually, a vehicle engine is not a particularly important source of pollution. Collectively however, vehicles represent a major source of air pollution in the UK and throughout the world. The best way to reduce the threat of air pollution is to use cleaner fuel and less of it, and to adopt more sustainable modes of transport like public transport, walking and cycling.

The UK Government has recognised the problems that air pollution causes for the environment and for society and in 1997 published the first National Air Quality Strategy, setting air quality standards for today and making commitments to achieve new air quality objectives by 2005.

Source : http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk/Environment/Air_Pollution.php

Berita Hari Ini

2008-12-03T05:34:00.001-08:00

Environmental and Sanitation

2008-12-03T05:18:00.001-08:00

Visit the Widget Gallery

100 Topic Sustainable Environmental

2008-11-29T11:43:00.000-08:00

In Your Home – Conserve Energy

Clean or replace air filters on your air conditioning unit at least once a month.
If you have central air conditioning, do not close vents in unused rooms.
Lower the thermostat on your water heater to 120.
Wrap your water heater in an insulated blanket.
Turn down or shut off your water heater when you will be away for extended periods.
Turn off unneeded lights even when leaving a room for a short time.
Set your refrigerator temperature at 36 to 38 and your freezer at 0 to 5 .
When using an oven, minimize door opening while it is in use; it reduces oven temperature by 25 to 30 every time you open the door.
Clean the lint filter in your dryer after every load so that it uses less energy.
Unplug seldom used appliances.
Use a microwave when- ever you can instead of a conventional oven or stove.
Wash clothes with warm or cold water instead of hot.
Reverse your indoor ceiling fans for summer and winter operations as recommended.
Turn off lights, computers and other appliances when not in use.
Purchase appliances and office equipment with the Energy Star Label; old refridgerators, for example, use up to 50 more electricity than newer models.
Only use electric appliances when you need them.
Use compact fluorescent light bulbs to save money and energy.
Keep your thermostat at 68 in winter and 78 in summer.
Keep your thermostat higher in summer and lower in winter when you are away
Insulate your home as best as you can.
Install weather stripping around all doors and windows.
Shut off electrical equipment in the evening when you leave work.
Plant trees to shade your home.
Shade outside air conditioning units by trees or other means.
Replace old windows with energy efficient ones.
Use cold water instead of warm or hot water when possible.
Connect your outdoor lights to a timer.
Buy green electricity - electricity produced by low - or even zero-pollution facilities (NC Greenpower for North Carolina - www.ncgreenpower.org). In your home-reduce toxicity.

In Your Home – Reduce Toxicity

Eliminate mercury from your home by purchasing items without mercury, and dispose of items containing mercury at an appropriate drop-off facility when necessary (e.g. old thermometers).
Learn about alternatives to household cleaning items that do not use hazardous chemicals.
Buy the right amount of paint for the job.
Review labels of household cleaners you use. Consider alternatives like baking soda, scouring pads, water or a little more elbow grease.
When no good alternatives exist to a toxic item, find the least amount required for an effective, sanitary result.
If you have an older home, have paint in your home tested for lead. If you have lead-based paint, cover it with wall paper or other material instead of sanding it or burning it off.
Use traps instead of rat and mouse poisons and insect killers.
Have your home tested for radon.
Use cedar chips or aromatic herbs instead of mothballs.

In Your Yard
Avoid using leaf blowers and other dust-producing equipment.
Use an electric lawn- mower instead of a gas-powered one.
Leave grass clippings on the yard-they decompose and return nutrients to the soil.
Use recycled wood chips as mulch to keep weeds down, retain moisture and prevent erosion.
Use only the required amount of fertilizer.
Minimize pesticide use.
Create a wildlife habitat in your yard.
Water grass early in the morning.
Rent or borrow items like ladders, chain saws, party decorations and others that are seldom used.
Take actions that use non hazardous components (e.g., to ward off pests, plant marigolds in a garden instead of using pesticide).
Put leaves in a compost heap instead of burning them or throwing them away. Yard debris too large for your compost bin should be taken to a yard-debris recycler.

In Your Office

Copy and print on both sides of paper.
Reuse items like envelopes, folders and paper clips.
Use mailer sheets for interoffice mail instead of an envelope.Use mailer sheets for interoffice mail instead of an envelope.
Set up a bulletin board for memos instead of sending a copy to each employee.
Use e-mail instead of paper correspondence.
Use recycled paper.
Use discarded paper for scrap paper.
Encourage your school and/or company to print documents with soy-based inks, which are less toxic.
Use a ceramic coffee mug instead of a disposable cup.

Ways To Protect Our Air
Ask your employer to consider flexible work schedules or telecommuting.
Recycle printer cartridges.
Shut off electrical equipment in the evening when you leave work.
Report smoking vehicles to your local air agency.
Don't use your wood stove or fireplace when air quality is poor.
Avoid slow-burning, smoldering fires. They produce the largest amount of pollution.
Burn seasoned wood - it burns cleaner than green wood.
Use solar power for home and water heating.
Use low-VOC or water-based paints, stains, finishes and paint strippers.
Purchase radial tires and keep them properly inflated for your vehicle.
Paint with brushes or rollers instead of using spray paints to minimize harmful emissions.
Ignite charcoal barbecues with an electric probe or other alternative to lighter fluid.
If you use a wood stove, use one sold after 1990. They are required to meet federal emissions standards and are more efficient and cleaner burning.
Walk or ride your bike instead of driving, whenever possible.
Join a carpool or vanpool to get to work.

Ways to Use Less Water

Check and fix any water leaks.
Install water-saving devices on your faucets and toilets.
Don't wash dishes with the water running continuously.
Wash and dry only full loads of laundry and dishes.
Follow your community's water use restrictions or guidelines.
Install a low-flow shower head.
Replace old toilets with new ones that use a lot less water.
Turn off washing machine's water supply to prevent leaks.

Ways to Protect Our Water
Revegetate or mulch disturbed soil as soon as possible.
Never dump anything down a storm drain.
Have your septic tank pumped and system inspected regularly.
Check your car for oil or other leaks, and recycle motor oil.
Take your car to a car wash instead of washing it in the driveway.
Learn about your watershed.

Create Less Trash
Buy items in bulk from loose bins when possible to reduce the packaging wasted.
Avoid products with several layers of packaging when only one is sufficient. About 33 of what we throw away is packaging.
Buy products that you can reuse.
Maintain and repair durable products instead of buying new ones.
Check reports for products that are easily repaired and have low breakdown rates.
Reuse items like bags and containers when possible.
Use cloth napkins instead of paper ones.
Use reusable plates and utensils instead of disposable ones.
Use reusable containers to store food instead of aluminum foil and cling wrap.
Shop with a canvas bag instead of using paper and plastic bags.
Buy rechargeable batteries for devices used frequently.
Reuse packaging cartons and shipping materials. Old newspapers make great packaging material.
Compost your vegetable scraps.
Buy used furniture - there is a surplus of it, and it is much cheaper than new furniture.

Sanitation is vital for health

2008-11-27T09:52:00.000-08:00

Readers of a prestigious medical journal were recently asked to name the greatest medical advance in the last century and a half. The result: better sanitation. In nineteenth-century Europe and North America, diarrhoea, cholera, and typhoid spread through poor sanitation was the leading cause of childhood illness and death; today, such deaths are rare in these regions. In developing countries, however, they are all too common, and recent research suggests that poor sanitation and hygiene are either the chief or the underlying cause in over half of the annual 10 million child deaths. Compelling, evidence-based analysis shows that hygiene and sanitation are among the most cost-effective public health interventions to reduce childhood mortality. Access to a toilet alone can reduce child diarrhoeal deaths by over 30 percent, and hand-washing by more than 40 percent.

Diarrhoeal diseases

Five thousand children die every day due to infectious diarrhoea, which is caused primarily by inadequate sanitation. Seventeen percent of under-five deaths are attributable to diarrhoeal diseases, making it the second largest killer of children, after pneumonia. Diarrhoea is also a major contributor to malnutrition and stunting.

Diarrhoeal diseases are often described as water-related, but more accurately should be known as excreta-related since the pathogens derive from faecal matter. The faecal-oral cycle« describes the principal routes of transmission of infectious diarrhoeal disease. This cycle is fuelled by the ive f’s fluid (drinking contaminated water); fields (the contamination of soil and crops with human faecal matter); fingers (unwashed hands preparing food or going into the mouth); food (eating contaminated food); and flies (spreading disease from faeces to food and water or directly to people – particularly problematic where open-air defecation is the norm).

Breaking the faecal-oral cycle, which depends primarily upon hand-washing and use of toilets or latrines that contain and sanitise faecal matter, saves children’s lives. In Salvador, Brazil, a recent city-wide sanitation drive has raised sanitation coverage rates from 26 percent to 80 percent.

A study on diarrhoeal morbidity in children under three was conducted in high and low-risk areas of the city. The overall prevalence of diarrhoea fell by 22 percent, but in the poorer areas where sanitation coverage was lowest to start with, prevalence fell by 43 percent.

source : http://esa.un.org